Published 20.12.2002. Updated
19.09.2003.
COLD FUSION BY PLASMA ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER
Ph.M. Kanarev
The Kuban State Agrarian University,
Department of Theoretical Mechanics
13, Kalinin Street, 350044
Krasnodar,
Russia
E-mail: kanphil@mail.kuban.ru
Tadahiko Mizuno
Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University,
Kita-ku, North 13, West-8 Sapporo
060-8628,
Japan
Abstract: It
has been disclosed that transmutation of the atomic nuclei of alkaline metals
and the atomic nuclei of the cathode material takes place during plasma
electrolysis of water.
Key words:
atom, nucleus, proton, neutron,
electron, cathode, low-current.
INTRODUCTION
Cold nuclear fusion
is the first hypothesis of a source of additional energy in heavy water
electrolysis. Fleischmann and Pons, the American electrochemists, are the
authors of this hypothesis [1]. They reported about it in 1989. Since that time
a large number of experiments has been carried out in order to obtain
additional energy from water [2], [3], [4], [5], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11],
[12]. We continue to discuss this problem.
THE FIRST EXPERIMENTAL PART
In order to check
this hypothesis, the following experiments were performed. Two cathodes were
made of iron with mass of 18.10 g and 18.15 g. The first cathode operated
during 10 hours in KOH solution; the second cathode operated during the same
period in NaOH solution. Mass of the first cathode remained unchanged, mass of
the second one was reduced by 0.02 g. The tension by plasmaelectrolysis process was 220 V and the current (0.5-1.0) A (Fig.1). The indices of the consumption of the solution
and the gases being generated were as follows (Table 1).
Fig. 1. Diagram of gas generator.
Patent Nr. 2210630: 7-catode; 11-anode
Table 1
Experimental results[1]
|
Indices |
Water
consumption, kg |
Volume
of gases,
|
Energy
expenses, |
|
KOH |
0.272 |
8.75 |
0.28 |
|
NaOH |
0.445 |
12.66 |
0.21 |
It is known that from one litre of
water it is possible to produce 1220 litres of hydrogen and 622 litres of
oxygen. Quantity of the gases generated by the plasma electrolytic process is
much greater than it is possible to get from consumed water (Table 1) [6]. It
gives the reason to think that not only water molecules, but the nuclei of
alkaline metals and the atomic nuclei of the cathode material serve as a source
of these gases. The analysing experiment has been performed in order to check
this fact.
Tadahiko Mizuno, the famous Japanese
scientists (the co-author of this article), who works at the Division of
Quantum Energy Engineering Research group of Nuclear System Engineering,
laboratory of Nuclear Material System, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University,
Kita-ku, North 13, West-8 Sapporo 060-8628, Japan, kindly agreed to perform
chemical analysis of the cathode samples with the help of the nuclear
spectroscopy method (EDX). Here are the results of his analysis. The content of
chemical elements on the surface of non-operating cathode is as follows (Table
2).
Table 2
Chemical composition of the cathode surface prior its operation in the solution
|
Element |
Fe |
|
% |
99.90 |
The new chemical elements have
appeared on the working surface of the cathode, which works in KOH solution
(Table 3).
Table 3
Chemical composition of the surface of the cathode, which operates in KOH
solution
|
Element |
Si |
K |
Cr |
Fe |
Cu |
|
% |
0.94 |
4.50 |
1.90 |
93.00 |
0.45 |
The chemical
composition of the surface of the cathode, which operates in NaOH. Has proved
to be different (Table 4).
Table 4
Chemical composition of the surface of the cathode, which operates in NaOH
solution
|
Element |
Al |
Si |
Cl |
K |
Ca |
Cr |
Fe |
Cu |
|
% |
1.10 |
0.55 |
0.20 |
0.60 |
0.40 |
1.60 |
94.00 |
0.65 |
Thus, the hypothesis
concerning the participation of the nuclei of alkaline metals and the atomic
nuclei of the cathode material in the formation of gases during plasma
electrolysis of water has experimental confirmation. Let us carry out the
preliminary analysis of the data being obtained (Tables 2, 3, 4).
THE FIRST THEORETICAL PART
In any of these cases, the atoms and the
molecules of hydrogen are formed. The part of its are burned and the other go
out with the steam. We have already
shown that the processes of fusion of the atoms and the molecules of hydrogen
and its isotopes result in occurrence
of additional thermal energy [6]. Numerous experiments show that
up to 50% of additional thermal energy are generated during the plasma
electrolysis of water, it is less than the results of the calculations
originating from the existing
cold fusion theories [6]. That’s why it is necessary to analyse energetics of the
particle creation process during the atomic nucleus transmutation.
Having considered the model of the
electron we have found out that it can exist in a free state only when it has a
definite electromagnetic mass [6]. Being combined with the atomic nucleus it
emits a part of energy in the form of the photons, and its electromagnetic mass
is reduced. But stability of its condition does not become worse, because the
energy carried away by the photons is compensated by binding energy of the
electron in the atomic nucleus [6].
If the ambient temperature is
increased, the electron begins to absorb the thermal photons and to pass to
higher energy levels of the atom reducing binding with it. When the electron
becomes free, it interacts with the atom only if the ambient temperature is
reduced. As this temperature is reduced, it will emit the photons and sink to
lower energy levels [6].
If the electron is in a free state
due to an accidental external influence on the atom and the environment has no
photons, which are necessary for it to restore its mass, it begins to absorb
the ether from the environment and to restore its constants in such a way:
mass, charge, magnetic moment, spin and radius of rotation. The electron
acquires the stable free state only after it has restored its all constants
[6].
Thus, if an interchange of the free
state and binding state with the atom takes place due to the accidental
influences on the atom, the electron restores its electromagnetic mass every
time due to absorbing the ether. It means that actually it plays the role of a
converter of the ether energy into the thermal photon energy.
The Japanese
investigators Ohmori and Mizuno [4] registered neutron radiation during plasma
electrolysis of water and reported that not only the nuclear process, but the
process of the electron capture by the free protons can be the source of this
radiation.
As hydrogen plasma is generated
during the plasma electrolytic process of water electrolysis, there exists a
tendency of the capture of the free electrons by them.
It is known that rest mass of the
electron is 
, rest mass of the proton is 
, and rest mass of the neutron is 
. The difference between the mass of the neutron and the mass
of the proton is equal to 
. It is 
of the mass of the
electron. Thus, the proton should capture 2.531 electrons in order to become
the neutron. The question arises at once: what will happen to the remained of
electron mass 
? The
disturbed balance of masses in this process is explained by modern physics in a
simple way: a neutrino is created [6].
As the neutrino has no charge, it is
very difficult to register it. If the neutrino takes the excess mass away or
replenish the lacking one, can the elementary particles execute this process by
themselves?
As the photons are emitted and
absorbed only by the electrons, the proton, which absorbs the electrons, cannot
convert the remainder of mass of the third electron into the photon. If the
electron is absorbed by the third one and gives more than a half of its mass to
the proton in order to convert it into the neutron, the remaining part of mass 
of the electron,
which has no possibility to become the photon, is converted into a portion of
the ether, which “is dissolved” and mixed with the ether in the space. The fact
that plasma has no photons with the mass corresponding to the part of mass of
the third electron, which has not been absorbed by the proton during its
conversion into the neutron, can serve as a proof of such affirmation. Let us
calculate energy of such photon [6].
The difference the mass of the
neutron and the proton is equal to 
. If
we subtract this value from the mass of three electrons, we’ll get mass 
, from which the photon should be formed [6]
(1)
If the photon is formed from this
remainder of mass 
, its energy will be [6]:
(2)
This value of energy corresponds to
roentgen spectrum, that’s why the creation of each free neutron should be
accompanied by the creation of one roentgen photon. If it does not take place,
we have two opportunities: the first one – we should think that in the case
when the neutron is created, the neutrino was formed from mass 
and flew away in the
unknown direction; the second one – there were no conditions for the formation
of the photons in the process being considered, and mass 
, which failed to be formed as a particle, “was dissolved” in
the ether. Which variant is closer to the truth [6] ? There is no exact answer, but it is known that the Japanese
scientists registered only neutron radiation with intensity of 50,000 neutrons
per second, and they failed to register roentgen radiation [4].
If in this process the roentgen
photons were created, they would not exceed heat efficacy of the plasma
electrolytic process, because they would not be the thermal photons. The thermal
photons are radiated and absorbed when the electrons make the energy
transitions to the energy levels, which are the most remote from the atomic
nuclei, where the infrared photons and neighbouring ones from the optical range
of the spectrum with energies of »(0.001-3.3) eV are generated [6].
Thus, the neutron fusion processes
in plasma electrolysis of water will not generate additional thermal energy.
But the appearance of the neutrons in plasma will promote the formation of the
nuclei of deuterium and, possibly, of tritium. As the balance of masses remains
almost unchanged, we have no reason to expect that additional energy will take
place when deuterium and tritium are formed. But it is sure to appear during
fusion of the atoms of deuterium and tritium, i.e. the hydrogen atoms [6].
In order to become a proton, the
neutron should radiate something, which mass is 
. Let us convert this mass into energy [6].
(3)
This energy corresponds to the gamma
range photons, i.e. not to the thermal photons, and this process does not give
additional energy. Thus, if the process of the formation of the helium atoms
takes place during plasma electrolysis of water, it should be accompanied by
gamma radiation. If there is no such radiation, but the helium atoms are
formed, the neutrino takes away the above-mentioned portion of mass 
or this mass, which
has no opportunity to be formed as the photon, “is dissolved” in the
environment, i.e. it is transferred into the state of the ether [6]. As the
roentgen photons and the gamma photons are not the thermal ones, this process
gives no excessive thermal energy [6].
Another variant is possible. When
the atoms of alkali metal bombard the cathode atoms, they are destroyed
completely and destroy the atoms of the cathode materials. Under the notion
“completely” we’ll understand such state when both the atom and the nucleus are
destroyed. In this case, the protons of the destroyed nuclei begin to form the
hydrogen atoms. The process of fusion of the atoms and the molecules of
hydrogen generate additional thermal energy [6].
But one should bear in mind that if
plasma disintegrates water molecule into hydrogen and oxygen and if these gases contact plasma, hydrogen
is combined with oxygen, and water is formed. Noise generated by plasma is
hydrogen microexplosions. Taking into consideration the above-mentioned fact
the larger the volume of hydrogen burnt in plasma, the smaller its volume in
the gas-vapour mixture. It means that such reactor operation modes are required
when quantity of burnt hydrogen is minimal one. Our theory allow us to have such results.
As iron is the
cathode material, the nuclei of its atoms are the targets of the atomic nuclei
of potassium, alkaline metal. During the transmutation of the iron nuclei (Fig.
2, b), the atomic nuclei of chromium (Fig. 2 a) and the atomic nuclei of copper
(Fig. 2, c) are formed [6].
a) Cr (24,28) b) Fe (26,28) c)
Cu (29,34)
Fig. 2. Diagrams of the atomic nuclei of: a) chromium,
b) iron, c) copper
When the atomic nucleus of iron (Fig. 2, b) pass into the atomic nucleus
of chromium (Fig. 2, a), two protons and two neutrons are released; two atoms
of deuterium or one atom of helium can be formed from them. If the neutrons
pass into the protons, four atoms of hydrogen are formed.
It is easy to see (Fig. 2) that the atomic nucleus of iron (Fig. 2, b)
should lose two upper protons and two neutrons in order to pass into the atomic
nucleus of chromium (Fig. 2, a).
Three additional protons and six neutrons (total 9 nucleons) are
required for the formation of the atomic nucleus of copper (Fig. 2, c) from the
atomic nucleus of iron. As there are chromium atoms, which, as we think, are
formed from the atomic nuclei of iron, on the cathode surface (Table 3) 4fold
than the atoms of copper, the solution is sure to have superfluous protons and
neutrons of the destroyed atomic nuclei of iron, and we can determined their
approximate relative quantity.
Let us suppose that four nuclei of the iron atoms pass into the nuclei
of the chromium atom. The total quantity of free protons and neutrons
(nucleons) is equal to 16. As one atom of copper falls on each four atoms of
chromium, 9 nucleons are spent for the formation of one nucleus of the copper
atom, and 7 nucleons remain free.
Let us see what is formed when the nucleus of the potassium atom is
destroyed. Potassium is situated in the first group of the fourth period of the
periodic law. Its nucleus contains 19 protons and 20 neutrons (Fig. 3, a) [6].
a) K (19,20) b) O (8,8) c) Si (14,14)
Fig. 3. Diagrams of the atomic nuclei of: a)
potassium, b) oxygen, c) silicon
In Fig. 3, a, we can see a weak link of the nucleus of the potassium
atom [6]. It is situated in the middle of its axis neutrons. When the
transmutation of the nuclei of the potassium atoms takes place, the nuclei of
the oxygen atoms can be formed (Fig. 3, b) as well as its isotopes and the
nuclei of the silicon atoms (Fig. 3, c).
The analysis of the structure of the nuclei of the potassium atom (Fig.
3, a) shows that its is the most probable source of the nucleus of the silicon
atom (Fig. 3, c), which atoms appear on the cathode (Table 3).
It is easy to count that during the destruction of one nucleus of the
potassium atom and the creation of one nucleus of the silicon atom 5 free
protons and 6 free neutrons, i.e. 11 nucleons, are formed.
Thus, the transmutation of the nuclei of the iron atoms and the
potassium atoms results in the formation of free protons and neutrons. As the
protons cannot exist in free state, the hydrogen atoms are created from them.
If the protons are connected with the neutrons after the destruction of the
nuclei of the iron atoms and the potassium atoms, the formation of deuterium,
tritium and helium is possible.
Let us pay attention
to the main fact – absence of the sodium atoms in the cathode material. It is
natural that the potassium atoms have appeared on the cathode, which operated
in KOH solution (Table 3). Why are no sodium atoms on the cathode, which
operated in NaOH solution? The answer is as follows: the nuclei of the sodium
(Fig. 4,a) atoms are completely destroyed during the plasma electrolytic
process. The presence of potassium on the surface of the cathode, which
operated in NaOH solution (Table 4), can be explained by insufficient ablution
of the reactor after the operation with KOH solution.
As free protons and
neutrons appear during the destruction of the nucleus of the sodium atom (Fig.
4,a), some nuclei of this element begin to form the atomic nuclei of aluminium
(Fig. 4, b), chlorine (Fig. 4, c) and calcium (Fig. 5).
But not all free
protons and neutrons are spent for the construction of the atomic nuclei of
aluminium, chlorine and calcium. A part of them is spent for the hydrogen atom
formation.
If we knew the total
quantity of transmutating atomic nuclei of iron, potassium and sodium as well
as the exact composition of the gases generated during the plasma electrolytic
process, it would be possible to determine the atomic nuclei being formed from
additional nucleons. Now we can only suppose that the majority of new nuclei
are the protons, i.e. the nuclei of the hydrogen atoms. The increased volume of
the gases generated during the plasma electrolytic process is explained by it
[6].
a) Na
(11,12) b) Al
(13,14) c) Cl (17,18)
Fig. 4.
Diagrams of the atomic nuclei of: a) sodium, b) aluminium, c) chlorine
Ca (20,20)
Fig. 5.
Diagram of the nucleus of the calcium atom
The analysis of these
Tables shows that transmutation of the nuclei of iron, of which the cathodes
are made, results in the formation of chromium and copper in both cases.
Apparently, aluminium, chlorine and calcium are formed from the destroyed
sodium nuclei. In any case, free protons and neutrons are formed.
But not all free
protons and neutrons are spent for the formation of the atomic nuclei of
copper, aluminium, chlorine and calcium. A part of them is spent for the
formation of the hydrogen atoms. In any case, the atoms and the molecules of
hydrogen are formed. The analysis has shown that plasma electrolytic process
extracts not more than 0.005 kg of alkaline metal from one litre of the
solution. It appears from this that if all neutrons of the atomic nuclei of the
molecules of water and alkali metals are transferred into the protons and the
atoms and the molecules of hydrogen are formed, the formed volume of gas will
be considerably less than the one registered during the experiment (Table 1). A
question arises: where do additional gases come from? In other to get the
answer on this question we made the next experiment.
THE SECOND EXPERIMENTAL PART
First of all we take
in a count, that high temperature of
plasma forms the conditions when a set of various processes takes place at the
cathode. First of all, water is boiled and evaporated. At the same tome, one
part of water molecules is disintegrated with a release of the atomic hydrogen,
another part of the molecules forms the orthohydrogen molecules. A part of
water molecules is disintegrated completely and is released at the cathode
together with hydrogen and oxygen. A part of hydrogen is combined with oxygen
again generating microexplosions (noise) and forming water.
During plasma
electrolysis of water, water vapor, hydrogen and oxygen are released
simultaneously. If vapor is condensed, gas mixture is released. In order to measure gas flow
rate the electronic anemometer have
been used. Diameter of the electronic anemometer was equal to internal diameter
of the gas make tube (23, Fig. 1). Its readings were registered and processed
by the computer. The experiment was performed dozen time, and each time its readings
were reproduced with small deviations [11]. But we had no hydrogen analyzer,
that’s why the results being obtained cannot be considered as final ones. We
admonished it in all editions of the book Water is a New Source of Energy
with such a phrase: “We abstain from lending an official status to these
results with the hope to get necessary financing and to repeat them with a
complete set of the necessary devices” [12, page 176].
In the middle of the
year of 2002 we received small financing, which allowed us to make a new
reactor and to buy some measuring instruments, in particular the scales with
the measurement limit up to 600 g and accuracy of 0.02 g. Careful preparation
allowed us to increase duration of continuous operation of the reactor (to 10 and
more hourses) and to register solution consumption for gas production.
The main difficulty of
operation with the hydrogen is in the fact that its mixture with air (4-74)% or
oxygen (4-94)% is combustible, and the fact was emphasized more than once during
the experiments making the researches be very careful. The second difficulty
during hydrogen quantity measurements generated by the plasma electrolytic
reactor is in the fact that its molecule has the smallest dimensions, that’s
why it penetrates easily to the places where the molecules of other substances
do not penetrate. Molecular hydrogen diffuses easily even into metals. For
example, one volume of palladium absorbs up to 800 volumes of hydrogen.
Gas flow speed was
measured with the help of various anemometers, its readings being registered
with the help of the computer. Numerous measurements and numerous analysis of
gas flow speed measurement accuracy with the help of the anemometers showed
that error of a conventional anemometer can be
100%.
Fig. 6.
Diagram of measurement of flow rate of the gas and its volume: 1 - tap for gas
flow movement direction switching, 2 – anemometer, 3 – graduated tank, 4 –
water tank
It is known that it is
possible to produce 1220 litres of hydrogen and 622 litres of oxygen from one
litre of water. Quantity of the gases generated by the plasma electrolytic
process is much greater than it is possible to get from consumed water (Table
1). It was a strong reason for a search of the measurement error. For this
purpose, the diagram of measurement of flow rate of the gases and their
quantity was used (Fig. 6).
The results of the
measurements were as follows. The anemometer showed that 200 litres of gas
mixture penetrated through it during 10 minutes. Nearly one litre of gases was
in the graduated tank during this period.
Thus, the measurement
of gas flow with the help of the anemometers distorted the result 200fold. It
should be mentioned that the reactor operated in the production mode of hydrogen
and oxygen in the cathode zone. As a result, their mixture burst. The pulses of
these explosions increased the readings of the anemometer.
It has become
necessary to return to the reactor operation modes when no oxygen is released
in the cathode zone. Our theory allows
us to do this easy.
PROTOCOL
of tests of the first model of
low-current Electrolyzers
It is known that it is possible to
produce 1.22 l of
+ 0.622 
= 1.843 (
) from 1 ml of 
Experimental
results
|
Indices |
1 |
2 |
3 |
Average |
|
1-duration
of experiment, hour |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
|
2-voltage,
V |
70 |
70 |
70 |
70 |
|
3-current, A |
0.038 |
0.080 |
0.098 |
0.072 |
|
4 – power,
W |
2.7 |
5.60 |
6.44 |
4.91 |
|
4-volume
of consumed solution, ml |
1.67 |
3.98 |
4.32 |
3.32 |
|
5-density
of the solution, kg/l |
1.04 |
1.04 |
1.04 |
1.04 |
|
6-volume
of consumed water, ml |
1.60 |
3.83 |
4.15 |
3.19 |
|
7-volume
of the gas mixture being produced, l |
2.95 |
7.06 |
7.85 |
5.95 |
|
6-volume
of hydrogen being produced, l |
1.95 |
4.67 |
5.07 |
3.80 |
|
7-energy
consumption per l of hydrogen, W×h/l |
1.38 |
1.20 |
1.27 |
1.28 |
|
8-energy
consumption per m3 of hydrogen, kWh/m3 |
1.38 |
1.20 |
1.27 |
1.28 |
|
9-existing
energy consumption for production of 1 m3 of hydrogen from water,
kWh/m3 |
4.00 |
4.00 |
4.00 |
4.00 |
CONCLUSION
Transmutation of the atomic nuclei of alkaline metals and
the atomic nuclei of the cathode material during plasma electrolysis of
water existed. Plasma electrolytic process opens new
prospects in study of matter on the nuclear, atomic and molecular levels.
The low-current electrolysis allow us to get the inexpensive hydrogen from water.
REFERENCES
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Electroanal. Chem. 261, 301 (1989),
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ABSTRACTS. Infinite Energy. V. 4, Issue 20, p. 59…69.
3. Harold L. Fox.
Cold nuclear fusion: essence, problems, influence on the world. View from USA.
Production group SVITAX. M.: 1993,
180 pages.
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Element Production, and Electromagnetic Wave and/or Neutron Emission in Light
Water Electrolysis with a Tungsten Cathode. Infinite Energy. Issue 20, 1998. Pages 14-17.
5. T. Mizuno. Nuclear Transmutation: The Reality
of Cold Fusion. Infinite Energy Press. 1998. 151 pages.
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FUSION BY PLASMA ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER. Krasnodar, 2002. 330 pages.
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Main Power Carrier of Future Power
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194p. (In English).
Kanarev: Cold Fusion by Plasma Electrolysis of
Water
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